Scientists discover new hitch to link nerve cell motors to their cargo

from the blink of an eye to running a marathon—nerve cells transmit signals to muscle cells. To do that, nerve cells rely on tiny molecular motors to transport chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) that excite muscles cells into action. It's a complex process, which scientists are still trying to understand. A new study by Syracuse University researchers has uncovered an important piece of the puzzle.

The study, published in the April 22 issue of the Journal of Biological Chemistry (JBC), describes the discovery of a protein that is involved in the motor-cargo mechanism that carries neurotransmitter chemicals to the nerve cell's synapse. The synapse is the junction at which electrical and chemical signals are transmitted from one nerve cell to another cell. JBC is the premier journal of the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology.

The discovery was made by a team of scientists led by George M. Langford, a cell biologist and dean of SU's College of Arts and Sciences. Team members included research associate Torsten Wollert and assistant professor Michael Cosgrove in the Department of Biology; and collaborators from Dartmouth College, the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, and the McLaughlin Research Institute. The study was funded by the National Institutes of Health.

"The transportation of neurotransmitter vesicles to the synapse is critical to nerve cell function," Langford says. "We want to better understand all of the molecular components involved in the transport process. We have discovered another 'hitch' that links the motor to its cargo."

New insights into how the chemicals are transported could result in new kinds of drug therapy for such illnesses as Parkinson's disease, depression and injuries to the neuromuscular system, Langford says.

Neurotransmitters, produced by nerve cells, are used to signal cells in every organ system in the body—from muscles to metabolism. The chemicals are packaged in small sacs called synaptic vesicles. The motors transporting these vesicles are composed of a protein called myosin-Va (Myo5a). Until now, it was not clearly understood how the Myo5a motor attached to the vesicle. In a series of experiments, Langford's team demonstrated, for the first time, that Myo5a forms a complex with the protein Rab3A, which serves as the 'hitch' that snags the synaptic vesicle.

By understanding how the process works in normal cells, it's possible for scientists to find ways to turn off a malfunctioning transportation system, Langford says. For example, over-production of the neurotransmitter dopamine has been linked to depression and other mental illnesses. It may be desirable to develop drugs that prevent dopamine from being transported. Likewise preventing the transportation of muscle-contracting neurotransmitters could ease painful muscle spasms associated with Parkinson's disease and severe, nervous system injuries.

Langford's research has been dedicated to understanding how organelles move within cells. He was the first to observe the movement of synaptic vesicles on actin filaments in addition to their previously known transportation on microtubules within nerve cells. Actin filaments and microtubules are the roads on which the molecular motors transport their cargo. "Think of microtubules as the expressways in the nerve cells and the actin filaments as the local streets," Langford says.

In addition to his work on cellular transport mechanisms, Langford is researching ways to produce more effective drugs to treat Candida albicans, a fungus that causes infections in humans.

Provided by Syracuse University

Scientists uncover chemical transformations in cobalt nanoparticles

 The evolution schematics of transition from cobalt to cobalt phosphide nanocrystals.

Understanding the intricacies of how nanoparticles undergo chemical transformations could lead to better ways to tailor their composition, which can lead to advanced material properties.

Using the Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source, scientists led by Richard Robinson, assistant professor of materials science and engineering, uncovered exactly what happens when cobalt nanoparticles transform into two phases of cobalt phosphides.

Their work, published in the Journal of Materials Chemistry, was featured by the journal as a "Hot Article" earlier this month.

The effect Robinson's team observed in the cobalt phosphide transitions was a nanoparticle hollowing due to asymmetric diffusivities of cations and anions. In other words, the cations move out from the core faster than anions can diffuse in, leading to a hollow particle.

Other groups have reported on this "Kirkendall" effect, but the Robinson team was the first to show that this hollowing is more complex than previously thought and can be studied as a two-step process. Their work could be used to control this process and produce complex particles with properties tailored for use in energy applications. Metal phosphides have a wide range of properties -- ferromagnetism, superconductivity, catalytic activity and magnetoresistance among them.

The work was done in collaboration with scientists led by Richard Hennig, assistant professor of materials science and engineering. It was supported by King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, the Cornell Center for Materials Research and the Energy Materials Center at Cornell.

Provided by Cornell University (news : web)

Trash to treasure: Turning steel-mill waste into bricks

Scientists are reporting development and successful testing of a promising new way of using a troublesome byproduct of the global steel industry as raw materials for bricks that can be used in construction projects. Their study appears in ACS' Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research.

In the report, Ana Andrés and colleagues note that steel mills around the world produce vast quantities of waste dust each year — 8 million – 12 million tons in the United States, for instance, and 700,000 tons in the European Union countries. The dust often is converted into a rock-like material known as Waelz slag, which is usually disposed of in landfills.

The slag contains iron, calcium, silicon oxide and other minor oxides as manganese, lead or zinc oxide. Scientists have been searching for practical and safe uses for Waelz slag. In earlier research, scientists showed that Waelz slag had potential as an ingredient in bricks, roof tiles and other ceramic products. The new research moves large-scale recycling of Waelz slag closer to reality, establishing at two real-world brick factories that the material can successfully be incorporated into commercial-size bricks.

It showed existing commercial equipment could be used to make bricks with Waelz slag, and eased concerns about large amounts of potentially toxic metals leaching out of such bricks. A small amount of potentially toxic material came out of the slag-made bricks over time, not in excess of European Union regulations. "Overall, it may be summarized that Waelz slag containing bricks meet the highest quality standards set for construction ceramic materials," the researchers say.

More information: Incorporation of Waelz Slag into Commercial Ceramic Bricks: A Practical Example of Industrial Ecology, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2011, 50 (9), pp 5806–5814. DOI: 10.1021/ie102145h

Abstract
The recovery of electric arc furnace (EAF) dust generates large amounts of an industrial byproduct called Waelz slag. This residue, consisting primarily of iron oxide contaminated with other metal oxides (including zinc and lead), is usually disposed of in landfill sites at a high economic and environmental cost. This paper investigates an alternative based on industrial ecology principles, which involves the incorporation of Waelz slag into clay ceramic construction bricks. For the purpose of this work, Waelz slag and raw materials employed in the manufacture of ceramic bricks (natural clays, wood pulp) were characterized. Subsequently, a series of brick specimens were manufactured according to commercial mixes and using industrial equipment and procedures. Similar specimens were also produced replacing 20-30 wt % of the clay with Waelz slag. The resulting products were analyzed for their physical (bulk density, water absorption, open porosity), mechanical (modulus of rupture), and chemical properties (soluble salts content) in order to evaluate compliance with quality standards for construction materials. The environmental consequences of incorporating slag into ceramic products were also investigated at three stages of their life cycle: release of potentially toxic species during their use (NEN 7345), leaching of heavy metals after disposal in landfill sites (EN 12457 1 and 2), and emission of atmospheric pollutants during the firing process. The experimental results demonstrate that incorporation of Waelz slag does not deteriorate the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of the resulting products. The leaching of species during its useful lives show compliance with threshold values established according to the Dutch Building Materials Decree (DBMD), and Waelz slag containing bricks fall into the category of nonhazardous waste landfill, just like conventional bricks used at this work. Emissions of CO2 and NOx were reduced versus the emissions of halogenated gases and SO2, which were favored due to the thermal decomposition of S, Cl, and F contained in the waste material.

Provided by American Chemical Society (news : web)

New biomaterial more closely mimics human tissue

 A new biomaterial designed for repairing damaged human tissue doesn’t wrinkle up when it is stretched. The invention from nanoengineers at the University of California, San Diego marks a significant breakthrough in tissue engineering because it more closely mimics the properties of native human tissue.

Shaochen Chen, professor in the Department of NanoEngineering at the UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering, hopes future tissue patches, which are used to repair damaged heart walls, blood vessels and skin, for example, will be more compatible with native human tissue than the patches available today. His findings were published in a recent issue of the journal Advanced Functional Materials.

The new biomaterial was created using a new biofabrication platform that Chen is developing under a four-year, $1.5 million grant from the National Institutes of Health. This biofabrication technique uses light, precisely controlled mirrors and a computer projection system -- shined on a solution of new cells and polymers -- to build three-dimensional scaffolds with well-defined patterns of any shape for tissue engineering.

“We are also exploring other opportunities,” said Chen. “It’s a new material. I think it’s just a matter of time before more people will pick up and find applications for it in defense, energy and communications, for instance.”

Although Chen’s team is focused on creating biological materials, he said the manufacturing technology could be used to engineer many other kinds of materials including metal parts used in ships and spacecraft, for example.

Shape turned out to be essential to the new material’s mechanical property. While most engineered tissue is layered in scaffolds that take the shape of circular or square holes, Chen’s team created two new shapes called “reentrant honeycomb” and “cut missing rib.” Both shapes exhibit the property of negative Poisson’s ratio (i.e. not wrinkling when stretched) and maintain this property whether the tissue patch has one or multiple layers. One layer is double the thickness of a human hair, and the number of layers used in a tissue patch depends on the thickness of the native tissue that doctors are trying to repair. A single layer would not be thick enough to repair a heart wall or skin tissue, for example.  The next phase of research will involve working with the Department of Bioengineering at the Jacobs School of Engineering to make tissue grafts to repair damaged blood vessels.

Provided by UC Davis (news : web)

Quantum sensor tracked in human cells could aid drug discovery

Groundbreaking research has shown a quantum atom has been tracked inside a living human cell and may lead to improvements in the testing and development of new drugs.

Professor Lloyd Hollenberg from the University of Melbourne's School of Physics who led the research said it is the first time a single atom encased in nanodiamond has been used as a sensor to explore the nanoscale environment inside a living human cell.

"It is exciting to see how the atom experiences the biological environment at the nanoscale," he said.

"This research paves the way towards a new class of quantum sensors used for biological research into the development of new drugs and nanomedicine."

The sensor is capable of detecting biological processes at a molecular level, such as the regulation of chemicals in and out of the cell, which is critical in understanding how drugs work.

The paper has been published in the journal Nature Nanotechnology.

Funded by the ARC Centre of Excellence for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology, the research was conducted by a cross-disciplinary team from the University of Melbourne's Physics, Chemistry, and Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering departments.

The researchers developed state of the art technology to control and manipulate the atom in the nanodiamond before inserting it into the human cells in the lab.

Biologist Dr Yan Yan of the University's Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering who works in the field of nanomedicine, said the sensor provides critical information about the movement of the nanodiamonds inside the living cell.

"This is important for the new field of nanomedicine where drug delivery is dependant on the uptake of similar sized nanoparticles into the cell."

Quantum physicist and PhD student Liam McGuinness from the University's School of Physics said that monitoring the atomic sensor in a living cell was a significant achievement.

"Previously, these atomic level quantum measurements could only be achieved under carefully controlled conditions of a physics lab," he said.

It is hoped in the next few years, that following these proof of principle experiments, the researchers will be able to develop the technology and provide a new set of tools for drug discovery and nanomedicine.

Story Source:

The above story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations ) from materials provided by University of Melbourne.

Journal Reference:

L. P. McGuinness, Y. Yan, A. Stacey, D. A. Simpson, L. T. Hall, D. Maclaurin, S. Prawer, P. Mulvaney, J. Wrachtrup, F. Caruso, R. E. Scholten, L. C. L. Hollenberg. Quantum measurement and orientation tracking of fluorescent nanodiamonds inside living cells. Nature Nanotechnology, 2011; DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2011.64

Matter-matter entanglement at a distance: Quantum mechanical entanglement of two remote quantum systems

Because of its strange consequences the quantum mechanical phenomenon of entanglement has been called "spooky action at a distance" by Albert Einstein. For several years physicists have been developing concepts how to use this phenomenon for practical applications such as absolutely safe data transmission. For this purpose, the entanglement which is generated in a local process has to be distributed among remote quantum systems.

A team of scientists led by Prof. Gerhard Rempe, Director at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics and head of the Quantum Dynamics Division, has now demonstrated that two remote atomic quantum systems can be prepared in a shared "entangled" state (Physical Review Letters, Advance Online Publication, May 26, 2011): one system is a single atom trapped in an optical resonator, the other one a Bose-Einstein condensate consisting of hundreds of thousands of ultracold atoms. With the hybrid system thus generated, the researchers have realized a fundamental building block of a quantum network.

In the quantum mechanical phenomenon of "entanglement" two quantum systems are coupled in such a way that their properties become strictly correlated. This requires the particles to be in close contact. For many applications in a quantum network, however, it is necessary that entanglement is shared between two remote nodes ("stationary" quantum bits). One way to achieve this is to use photons ("flying" quantum bits) for transporting the entanglement. This is somewhat analogous to classical telecommunication, were light is used to transmit information between computers or telephones. In the case of a quantum network, however, this task is much more difficult as entangled quantum states are extremely fragile and can only survive if the particles are well isolated from their environment.

The team of Professor Rempe has now taken this hurdle by preparing two atomic quantum systems located in two different laboratories in an entangled state: on the one hand a single rubidium atom trapped inside an optical resonator formed by two highly reflective mirrors, on the other hand an ensemble of hundreds of thousands of ultracold rubidium atoms which form a Bose Einstein condensate (BEC). In a BEC, all particles have the same quantum properties so that they all act as a single "superatom."

First, a laser pulse stimulates the single atom to emit a single photon. In this process, internal degrees of freedom of the atom are coupled to the polarisation of the photon, so that both particles become entangled. The photon is transported through a 30 m long optical fibre into a neighbouring laboratory where it is directed to the BEC. There, it is absorbed by the whole ensemble. This process converts the photon into a collective excitation of the BEC. "The exchange of quantum information between photons and atomic quantum systems requires a strong light-matter interaction," explains Matthias Lettner, a doctoral student working on the experiment. "For the single atom, we achieve this by multiple reflections between the two resonator mirrors, whereas for the BEC the light-matter interaction is enhanced by the large number of atoms."

In a subsequent step, the physicists prove that the single atom and the BEC are really entangled. To this end, the photon absorbed in the BEC is retrieved with the help of a laser pulse and the state of the single atom is read out by generating a second photon. The entanglement of the two photons reaches 95 % of the maximally possible value, thus showing that the entanglement of the two atomic quantum systems must have been equally good, or even better. Moreover, the entanglement is detectable for approximately 100 microseconds.

"A BEC is very well suited as a quantum memory because this exotic state does not suffer from any disturbances caused by thermal motion," says Matthias Lettner. "This makes it possible to store and retrieve quantum information with high efficiency and to conserve this state for a long time."

In this experiment, the team of Professor Rempe has realized a building block for a quantum network consisting of two remote, entangled, stationary nodes. This is a milestone on the way to large-scale quantum networks in which, for example, quantum information can be transmitted absolutely safe. In addition, such networks might help realizing a universal quantum computer in which quantum bits can be exchanged with photons between nodes designed for information storage and processing.

Story Source:

The above story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations ) from materials provided by Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, via AlphaGalileo.

Journal Reference:

M. Lettner, M. Mücke, S. Riedl, C. Vo, C. Hahn, S. Baur, J. Bochmann, S. Ritter, S. Dürr, and G. Rempe. Remote Entanglement between a Single Atom and a Bose-Einstein Condensate. Physical Review Letters, 2011; DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.210503

Common fire retardant harmful to aquatic life

ScienceDaily (May 24, 2011) — A new study by Baylor University environmental health researchers found that zebra fish exposed to several different technical mixtures of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) -- a common fire retardant -- during early development can cause developmental malformations, changes in behavior and death.

The study will appear in the June issue of the journal Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry and is the first to test multiple PBDE mixtures for changes in behavior, physical malformations and mortality on zebra fish.

PBDEs are found in many common household products from blankets to couches to food wrappers. Lab tests have shown that PBDEs have been found in human breast milk and cord blood. Previous studies have showed children with high levels of PBDEs in their umbilical cord at birth scored lower on tests between one and six years of age. In 2006, the state of California started prohibiting the use of PBDEs.

The family of PBDEs consists of more than 200 possible substances, which are called congeners. Congeners are considered low if they average between 1 to 5 bromine atoms per molecule.

The Baylor researchers tested six PBDE congeners for developmental effects on embryonic zebra fish. Changes in behavior, physical malformations and mortality were recorded daily for seven days.

The results showed:

Lower brominated congeners were more toxic than higher brominated congeners.Embryos were most sensitive to two particular types of PBDE exposures, the two lowest brominated congeners of the six tested. Both induced a curved body axis and eventually death.In all, four of the six congeners tested caused developmental malformations, such as a curved body axis and pulmonary edema. Five of the six caused alterations in behaviors, such as decreased swimming rates and increased spontaneous movement in the embryo.

"While most PBDEs have either been banned or phased out throughout the world, it may be more beneficial to identify congeners of concern rather than replacing these compounds with chemicals of unknown biological interactions," said Dr. Erica Bruce, assistant professor of environmental science at Baylor who is an expert in environmental chemicals and their effects on public health. "Alterations in early behavior may potentially be due to disruption of thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormones play a vital role in the development of the cholinergic system and this study gives insight into biological interaction within a few hours of exposure. The observed hyperactivity may be due to overstimulation of the cholinergic system," Bruce said.

Story Source:

The above story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations by ScienceDaily staff) from materials provided by Baylor University.

Journal Reference:

Crystal Y. Usenko, Eleanor M. Robinson, Sascha Usenko, Bryan W. Brooks, Erica D. Bruce. PBDE developmental effects on embryonic zebrafish. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 2011; DOI: 10.1002/etc.570

Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

Disclaimer: Views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect those of ScienceDaily or its staff.

Droplets for detecting tumoral DNA

New research suggests it may be possible, in the near future, to detect cancer by a simple blood or urine test.

Biologists from CNRS, Inserm, Paris Descartes and Strasbourg universities have developed a technique capable of detecting minute traces of tumoral DNA present in the biological fluids of patients suffering from cancer. The method consists in carrying out ultra-sensitive molecular analyses in microscopic droplets. Successfully tested on genes involved in various cancers, including cancer of the colon and leukemia, it has the potential of becoming a powerful tool for oncologists, both in making a diagnosis and in prescribing a treatment. A clinical study is already envisaged to evaluate this technique.

The work is published on the website of the journal Lab on a Chip.

When tumoral cells die, they spill their contents into the extracellular medium. These contents, in particular the DNA of cells, are then found in the biological fluids of the patient: blood, lymph, urine, etc. Since the development of most cancers involves genetic factors, a simple blood or urine test could in theory reveal the presence of tumoral DNA and thus cancer as soon as the first cancerous cells die, in other words at a very early stage.

Despite this great promise, there is a snag which explains why physicians cannot yet track down cancers in biological fluids: tumoral DNA is only present in trace amounts in these fluids. In blood, for example, it represents less than 0.01% of the total DNA found in diluted form. However, conventional DNA analysis methods are not sensitive enough to detect such small amounts. Hence the interest of the technique developed by researchers from CNRS, Inserm, the Université de Strasbourg and the Université Paris Descartes, in collaboration with a German team from the Max Planck Institute (Göttingen) and an American company (Raindance Technologies). The considerable advantage of this technique is that it makes it possible to detect DNA thresholds 20,000 times lower than was previously the case in clinics.

How does it work? A first step consists in distributing the DNA extracted from a biological sample into millions of droplets, which are sufficiently small to contain only a single target gene each. Then, this DNA is amplified by means of modern molecular multiplication methods. Simultaneously, fluorescent molecules specific to each gene interact with the DNA. This key phase provides a sort of gene color code. The droplets are then guided, one by one, into microscopic grooves where they are analyzed by laser: the color of the fluorescent molecules then indicates which gene is present in the droplet. If the droplet emits red fluorescence, for example, the DNA is healthy. If it is green, it is tumoral. If the droplet does not emit any fluorescence, it does not contain the targeted gene. A simple count of the colored spots then makes it possible to determine the tumoral DNA concentration.

The researchers have successfully applied their method to an oncogene (a gene that has the potential of causing cancer) known as KRAS (associated with leukemia and various cancers, such as cancer of the colon, pancreas and lung). The DNA bearing this gene was derived from laboratory cell lines. This new analytical method now needs to be tested in a therapeutic context. A clinical study is already scheduled. If it is a success, physicians will have an efficient "anticancer weapon," not just for detecting the presence of tumors but also for proposing treatments. The aggressiveness of the cancer, its responsiveness to existing treatments and its risk of recurrence following local treatment: all this information is partly contained in the tumoral DNA. By deciphering it with the microdroplet technology, oncologists could benefit from a powerful diagnostic tool to help predict the evolution of the disease and determine a therapeutic strategy.

Story Source:

The above story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations by ScienceDaily staff) from materials provided by CNRS (Délégation Paris Michel-Ange).

Journal Reference:

Deniz Pekin, Yousr Skhiri, Jean-Christophe Baret, Delphine Le Corre, Linas Mazutis, Chaouki Ben Salem, Florian Millot, Abdeslam El Harrak, J. Brian Hutchison, Jonathan W. Larson, Darren R. Link, Pierre Laurent-Puig, Andrew D. Griffiths, Valérie Taly. Quantitative and sensitive detection of rare mutations using droplet-based microfluidics. Lab on a Chip, 2011; DOI: 10.1039/C1LC20128J

Trash to treasure: Turning steel-mill waste into bricks

 Scientists are reporting development and successful testing of a promising new way of using a troublesome byproduct of the global steel industry as raw materials for bricks that can be used in construction projects. Their study appears in ACS' Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research.

In the report, Ana Andrés and colleagues note that steel mills around the world produce vast quantities of waste dust each year -- 8 million to 12 million tons in the United States, for instance, and 700,000 tons in the European Union countries. The dust often is converted into a rock-like material known as Waelz slag, which is usually disposed of in landfills. The slag contains iron, calcium, silicon oxide and other minor oxides as manganese, lead or zinc oxide. Scientists have been searching for practical and safe uses for Waelz slag. In earlier research, scientists showed that Waelz slag had potential as an ingredient in bricks, roof tiles and other ceramic products. The new research moves large-scale recycling of Waelz slag closer to reality, establishing at two real-world brick factories that the material can successfully be incorporated into commercial-size bricks.

It showed existing commercial equipment could be used to make bricks with Waelz slag, and eased concerns about large amounts of potentially toxic metals leaching out of such bricks. A small amount of potentially toxic material came out of the slag-made bricks over time, not in excess of European Union regulations. "Overall, it may be summarized that Waelz slag containing bricks meet the highest quality standards set for construction ceramic materials," the researchers say.

The authors acknowledge funding from the Spanish Ministry for Education and Science and BEFESA Steel R&D.

Story Source:

The above story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations ) from materials provided by American Chemical Society, via EurekAlert!, a service of AAAS.

Journal Reference:

N. Quijorna, G. San Miguel, A. Andre´s. Incorporation of Waelz Slag into Commercial Ceramic Bricks: A Practical Example of Industrial Ecology. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2011; 110324125033025 DOI: 10.1021/ie102145h

.

New nanoscale imaging may lead to new treatments for multiple sclerosis

Laboratory studies by chemical engineers at UC Santa Barbara may lead to new experimental methods for early detection and diagnosis -- and to possible treatments -- for pathological tissues that are precursors to multiple sclerosis and similar diseases.

Achieving a new method of nanoscopic imaging, the scientific team studied the myelin sheath, the membrane surrounding nerves that is compromised in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS).

The study is published in this week's online edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

"Myelin membranes are a class of biological membranes that are only two molecules thick, less than one millionth of a millimeter," said Jacob Israelachvili, one of the senior authors and professor of chemical engineering and of materials at UCSB. "The membranes wrap around the nerve axons to form the myelin sheath."

He explained that the way different parts of the central nervous system, including the brain, communicate with each other throughout the body is via the transmission of electric impulses, or signals, along the fibrous myelin sheaths. The sheaths act like electric cables or transmission lines.

"Defects in the molecular or structural organization of myelin membranes lead to reduced transmission efficiency," said Israelachvilli. "This results in various sensory and motor disorders or disabilities, and neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis."

At the microscopic level and the macroscopic level, which is visible to the eye, MS is characterized by the appearance of lesions or vacuoles in the myelin, and eventually results in the complete disintegration of the myelin sheath. This progressive disintegration is called demyelination.

The researchers focused on what happens at the molecular level, commonly referred to as the nanoscopic level. This requires highly sensitive visualization and characterization techniques.

The article describes fluorescence imaging and other measurements of domains, which are small heterogeneous clusters of lipid molecules -- the main constituents of myelin membranes -- that are likely to be responsible for the formation of lesions. They did this using model molecular layers in compositions that mimic both healthy and diseased myelin membranes.

They observed differences in the appearance, size, and sensitivity to pressure, of domains in the healthy and diseased monolayers. Next, they developed a theoretical model, in terms of certain molecular properties, that appears to account quantitatively for their observations.

"The discovery and characterization of micron-sized domains that are different in healthy and diseased lipid assemblies have important implications for the way these membranes interact with each other," said Israelachvili. "And this leads to new understanding of demyelination at the molecular level."

The findings pave the way for new experimental methods for early detection, diagnosis, staging, and possible treatment of pathological tissues that are precursors to MS and other membrane-associated diseases, according to the authors.

All of the work reported in the paper was completed at UCSB, although some of the authors have moved to other institutions. In addition to Israelachvili, the other authors are Dong Woog Lee, graduate student in UCSB's Department of Chemical Engineering; Younjin Min, now a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Engineering; Prajnaparamitra Dhar, now assistant professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Kansas; Arun Ramachandran, now assistant professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry at the University of Toronto; and Joseph A. Zasadzinski, now professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science at the University of Minnesota.

Story Source:

The above story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations by ScienceDaily staff) from materials provided by University of California - Santa Barbara, via EurekAlert!, a service of AAAS.

Journal Reference:

Dong Woog Lee, Younjin Min, Prajnaparamitra Dhar, Arun Ramachandran, Jacob N. Israelachvili and Joseph A. Zasadzinski. Relating domain size distribution to line tension and molecular dipole density in model cytoplasmic myelin lipid monolayers. PNAS, May 23, 2011 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1106368108

Ocean Optics Employee Wins Global Technology Award

Ocean Optics announced that Nelson Chandler has been awarded the Gold Award for Innovation from its parent company, Halma p.l.c. The award recognizes technology advancements made by individuals at Halma subsidiaries that have a significant impact on the company’s success.

Chandler received the L20K (USD $32K) Gold Award for Innovation, beating out 38 other entries from 22 companies in 6 countries. A software engineer at Ocean Optics, Chandler revamped the testing and calibration process for the company’s spectroscopy products, making it quicker and more reliable. By developing original software and modifying hardware equipment, he was able to make processing eight times faster, while improving consistency and quality.

Typically Innovation Award submissions involve a team working together. Chandler’s achievement is particularly impressive as he is the sole individual responsible for the improvements made. He received his B.S. in Software Engineering Technology from The University of Southern Mississippi and has been with Ocean Optics since 2007.

 

Following a Strong First Quarter, Wacker Expects Further Growth

Following a strong first quarter, Wacker Chemie AG expects further sales and earnings gains for full-year 2011. Rudolf Staudigl, CEO of the Munich-based chemical company, underscored this point at Wacker’s 2011 Annual Shareholders’ Meeting. “Wacker is poised for further growth,” he said. Staudigl reaffirmed the full-year forecast and said that sales should cross the €5-billion mark, and earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization (EBITDA) should exceed 2010’s €1.19 billion level.

Of 2010’s Group net income of €497.0 million (2009: €-74.5 million), Wacker is paying out a total of €159.0 million (2009: €59.6 million) to its shareholders. The dividend per dividend-entitled share is €3.20 (2009: €1.20). The Executive and Supervisory Boards’ other proposals were also adopted by large majorities.

Following a very good fiscal 2010, Wacker further increased both sales and earnings in Q1 2011. Sales at the Munich-based chemicals Group climbed 21 percent to €1.29 billion from January through March 2011 (Q1 2010: €1.07 billion) – primarily due to higher sales volumes. A positive market environment and strong customer demand fueled Wacker’s continued business growth. The sales gain was additionally supported by higher prices in some key product segments. EBITDA achieved even stronger growth, climbing to €351.0 million in Q1 2011 (Q1 2010: €253.7 million), up 38 percent.

“After a short lull, Wacker has resumed its growth trajectory,” said CEO Rudolf Staudigl, addressing the company’s shareholders in Munich on Wednesday. “The broad economic recovery, spanning every industry, contributed substantially to our strong performance last year. Other factors were just as important, though. When demand slumped in 2009, we neither questioned our strategic course, nor did we abandon our sound core financial policies,” the CEO underscored. According to Staudigl, the Group will continue its efforts this year to enhance cost structures, processes and competitiveness. He added that Wacker was optimistic about the future in light of steady strong customer demand.

 

Chemical engineers invent portable hydrogen reactor for fuel cells

Chemical Engineering students at Stevens Institute of Technology are transforming the way that American soldiers power their battery-operated devices by making a small change: a really small change. Capitalizing on the unique properties of microscale systems, the students have invented a microreactor that converts everyday fossil fuels like propane and butane into pure hydrogen for fuel cell batteries. These batteries are not only highly efficient, but also can be replenished with hydrogen again and again for years of resilient performance in the field.

With batteries consuming a substantial amount of a soldier's gear weight, the Army has a high interest in replacing the current paradigm of single-use batteries with a reliable, reusable power source. The Stevens-made microreactors thus have the potential to not only reduce waste from disposable batteries, but also provide American soldiers with a dependable way to recharge the batteries for the critical devices that keep them safe.

Current methods for generating fuel cell hydrogen are both sophisticated and risky, requiring high temperatures and a vacuum to produce the necessary chemical-reaction-causing plasmas. Once in a container, hydrogen is a highly volatile substance that is dangerous and expensive to transport.

The Stevens microreactor overcomes both of these barriers by using low temperatures and atmospheric pressure, and by producing hydrogen only as needed to avoid creating explosive targets in combat areas. These advanced reactors are created using cutting-edge microfabrication techniques, similar to those used to create plasma television screens, which use microscale physics to produce plasma under normal atmospheres.

The team has already had success producing hydrogen from methanol. After gasifying methanol by suspending it in hot nitrogen gas, the mixture is drawn into a 25µm channel in the microreactor. There, it reacts with plasma to cause thermal decomposition, breaking down the methanol into its elemental components. Now the team is conducting tests to see what kind of yields are realizable from various starter fuels. Eventually, soldiers will be able to convert everyday liquid fuels like propane or butane, commonly found on military bases, into high-potency juice for portable fuel cell batteries.

Provided by Stevens Institute of Technology

Led by advances in chemical synthesis, scientists find natural product shows pain-killing properties

Scientists from the Florida campus of The Scripps Research Institute have for the first time accomplished a laboratory synthesis of a rare natural product isolated from the bark of a plant widely employed in traditional medicine. This advance may provide the scientific foundation to develop an effective alternative to commonly prescribed narcotic pain treatments.

The study, published May 23, 2011, in an advanced online edition of the journal Nature Chemistry, defines a chemical means to access meaningful quantities of the rare natural product conolidine. Based on data from mouse models, the study also suggests that synthetic conolidine is a potent analgesic as effective as morphine in alleviating inflammatory and acute pain, with few, if any, side effects.

In recent years, there has been significant interest in developing alternatives to opiate-based pain medications such as morphine. While widely prescribed for pain, morphine has a number of adverse side effects that range from the unpleasant to the lethal, including nausea, chronic constipation, addiction, and breathing depression.

The rare natural product central to the study is derived from the bark of a widely grown tropical flowering plant Tabernaemontana divaricata (also known as crepe jasmine). Long part of traditional medicine in China, Thailand, and India, extract from the leaves has been used as an anti-inflammatory applied to wounds, while the root has been chewed to fight the pain of toothache. Other parts of the plant have been used to treat skin diseases and cancer.

Conolidine belongs to a larger class of natural products, called C5-nor stemmadenines, members of which have been described as opioid analgesics, despite a substantial discrepancy between potent in vivo analgesic properties and low affinity to opiate receptors. Conolidine is an exceptionally rare member of this family for which no therapeutically relevant properties had ever been described. Despite the potential value of conolidine and related C5-nor stemmadenines as leads for therapeutics, efficient methods to prepare these molecules were lacking.

"This was a classic problem in chemical synthesis," said Glenn Micalizio, an associate professor in the Department of Chemistry, who initiated and directed the study, "which we were able to solve effectively and efficiently¬¬—an achievement that made subsequent assessment of the potential therapeutic properties of this rare natural product possible."

Micalizio and his colleagues began working on the synthesis of the molecule after they arrived at Scripps Florida in 2008.

Testing For Potency

Once the synthesis was complete, research shifted to pharmacology for evaluation. The pharmacological assessment, performed in the laboratory of Scripps Florida Associate Professor Laura Bohn, showed that the new synthetic compound has surprisingly potent analgesic properties.

"Her pharmacological studies confirmed that while it's not an opiate, it's nearly as potent as morphine," Micalizio said.

In various models of pain, the new synthetic compound performed spectacularly, suppressing acute pain and inflammatory-derived pain, two key measures of efficacy. Not only that, but the new compound passed easily through the blood-brain barrier, and was present in the brain and blood at relatively high concentrations up to four hours after injection.

Bohn herself was surprised by the compound's potency and by the fact it so readily enters the brain.

"While the pain-relieving properties are encouraging, we are still challenged with elucidating the mechanism of action," she said. "After pursuing more than 50 probable cellular targets, we are still left without a primary mechanism."

So far, the compound has shown remarkably few, if any, side effects, but that is something of a double-edged sword.

"The lack of side effects makes it a very good candidate for development," Bohn said. "On the other hand, if there were side effects, they might provide additional clues as to how the compound works at the molecular level."

That remains a mystery. While the synthetic compound might be as effective as morphine, it doesn't act at any of the receptors associated with opiates. In fact, it misses most of the major neurotransmitter receptors completely, suggesting it may be highly tuned towards relieving pain while not producing multiple side effects. While still in the early stages of development, further characterizations of conolidine may suggest further development as a human therapeutic for the treatment of pain.

More information: "Synthesis of Conolidine, a Potent Non-Opioid Analgesic for Tonic and Persistent Pain," Michael A. Tarselli et al. Nature Chemistry (2011)

Provided by The Scripps Research Institute (news : web)

DNA falls apart when you pull it

 

Artist's impression of optical tweezers used to pull DNA. On both ends of the DNA, beads are glued that are held by a laser beam. With the laser beam, the DNA can be pulled, by which, as can be seen on the left, it falls apart.

DNA falls apart when you pull it with a tiny force: the two strands that constitute a DNA molecule disconnect. Peter Gross of VU University Amsterdam has shown this in his PhD research project. With this research, researchers can now have a better understanding of how DNA in cells is locally opened so genes can be turned ‘on’ or ‘off’.

DNA is one of the most important molecules in cells because it contains the genetic code. A DNA molecule consists of two strands that are wound around each other and connected together like a spiral staircase: the double helix. Whether the genetic code in a piece of DNA is actually used, partially depends on the ease with which the two DNA strands separate from each other – like a zipper. Because that is required in order to read the genetic code. When you heat DNA in a test tube to about 80 degrees Celsius, the two strands fall apart, they ‘melt’. Cells use a different way to melt DNA: proteins pull the DNA strands apart.

To investigate this process of pulling DNA, Peter Gross used so-called optical tweezers to pull the DNA with tiny forces. Simultaneously, he used fluorescence microscopy to see closely what happens to the DNA. What he saw can be described as a game of tug of war with a frayed rope: when you pull harder, the rope frays further and further apart. When Peter Gross increased the force on the DNA, he saw that the DNA strands fall apart with tiny shocks. He could accurately analyze these shocks and saw that the pattern of shocks is determined by the genetic code of the DNA: the pattern is like a fingerprint of the DNA. He also observed that the two DNA strands spontaneously join together and form a double helix again when he reduced the force on the DNA. This research has led to a better understanding of the complex properties of DNA, in particular the stability of the double helix.

Provided by University of Amsterdam

A hint of blackcurrant: Olfactory properties and gas-phase structures of Cassyrane stereoisomers

Upon testing different fragrances in a perfumery, the so-called top note, consisting of the most volatile odorants, is what characterizes a scent. These odorants determine the first and often most decisive impression of a perfume. Blackcurrant, or cassis, scent is one of the most sophisticated and elegant fruity top notes, and is fashionable since “DKNY Be Delicious”. A team from the RWTH in Aachen (Germany) and Givaudan Schweiz AG has now taken a close look at the blackcurrant odorant Cassyrane. As the scientists led by Wolfgang Stahl and Philip Kraft report in the journal Angewandte Chemie, there are specific structural features that key the cassis scent.

In addition to their two classic scents, ”Cassis Base 345B” and ”Corps Cassis”, in April 2010 Givaudan introduced a new captive ingredient Cassyrane; this substance imparts a natural, juicy cassis odor with aspects of cassis sorbet upon the top note of a perfume. Cassyrane consists of different so-called isomeric molecules that are of identical atomic composition, but have different spatial arrangements.

When four different atoms are bound to a carbon atom, there are two different ways for these to be arranged relative to each other in space. These two possible structures are mirror images of each other. Natural substances often have several such chiral centers. In scents, each of the possible combinations, known as stereoisomers, can have a different odor that can also be more or less intense. Cassyrane has two chiral centers, which gives it four possible stereoisomers.

Because the cassis odor of the other cassis scents distinctly depends on the configurations of the molecules, the researchers wanted to investigate the scent properties of the individual Cassyrane stereoisomers. They also examined the stereoisomers of the dihydro derivative, a compound of nearly identical structure that also smells of cassis but is missing the double bond found in the Cassyrane molecule.

It was first necessary to synthesize pure forms of each stereoisomer by means of clever procedures. It turns out that not all of the isomers smell of cassis. In both compounds, an R configuration at carbon number 5 elicits a character reminiscent of Provencal herbs like rosemary, while isomers with the 5S configuration had the fruity odor of cassis. The stereocenter at carbon number 2 has a strong influence on the intensity of the odor.

A molecule is a flexible structure; its atomic groups can twist and bend in various ways relative to each other. The researchers wished to determine which of these spatial structures is preferentially adopted by each of these stereoisomers in the gas phase. They were able to achieve this by examining the molecular rotations by means of microwave spectroscopy and combining these results with quantum chemical calculations. When the calculated structures were overlaid with those of the stereoisomers in the classical scents the result was clear: a very specific configuration does seem to be important for the cassis character of the scents.

More information: Philip Kraft, Cassis Odor through Microwave Eyes: Olfactory Properties and Gas-Phase Structures of all the Cassyrane Stereoisomers and its Dihydro Derivatives, Angewandte Chemie International Edition, Permalink to the article: http://dx.doi.org/ … ie.201100937

Provided by Wiley (news : web)

Droplets for detecting tumoral DNA

It will perhaps be possible, in the near future, to detect cancer by a simple blood or urine test. In fact, biologists from CNRS, Inserm, Paris Descartes and Strasbourg universities have developed a technique capable of detecting minute traces of tumoral DNA present in the biological fluids of patients suffering from cancer. The method consists in carrying out ultra-sensitive molecular analyses in microscopic droplets. Successfully tested on genes involved in various cancers, including cancer of the colon and leukemia, it has the potential of becoming a powerful tool for oncologists, both in making a diagnosis and in prescribing a treatment. A clinical study is already envisaged to evaluate this technique. The work is published on the website of the journal Lab on a chip.

When tumoral cells die, they spill their contents into the extracellular medium. These contents, in particular the DNA of cells, are then found in the biological fluids of the patient: blood, lymph, urine, etc. Since the development of most cancers involves genetic factors, a simple blood or urine test could in theory reveal the presence of tumoral DNA and thus cancer as soon as the first cancerous cells die, in other words at a very early stage.

Despite this great promise, there is a snag which explains why physicians cannot yet track down cancers in biological fluids: tumoral DNA is only present in trace amounts in these fluids. In blood, for example, it represents less than 0.01% of the total DNA found in diluted form. However, conventional DNA analysis methods are not sensitive enough to detect such small amounts. Hence the interest of the technique developed by researchers from CNRS, Inserm, the Université de Strasbourg and the Université Paris Descartes, in collaboration with a German team from the Max Planck Institute (Göttingen) and an American company (Raindance Technologies). The considerable advantage of this technique is that it makes it possible to detect DNA thresholds 20,000 times lower than was previously the case in clinics.

How does it work? A first step consists in distributing the DNA extracted from a biological sample into millions of droplets, which are sufficiently small to contain only a single target gene each. Then, this DNA is amplified by means of modern molecular multiplication methods. Simultaneously, fluorescent molecules specific to each gene interact with the DNA. This key phase provides a sort of gene color code. The droplets are then guided, one by one, into microscopic grooves where they are analyzed by laser: the color of the fluorescent molecules then indicates which gene is present in the droplet. If the droplet emits red fluorescence, for example, the DNA is healthy. If it is green, it is tumoral. If the droplet does not emit any fluorescence, it does not contain the targeted gene. A simple count of the colored spots then makes it possible to determine the tumoral DNA concentration.

The researchers have successfully applied their method to an oncogene (a gene that has the potential of causing cancer) known as KRAS (associated with leukemia and various cancers, such as cancer of the colon, pancreas and lung). The DNA bearing this gene was derived from laboratory cell lines. This new analytical method now needs to be tested in a therapeutic context. A clinical study is already scheduled. If it is a success, physicians will have an efficient “anticancer weapon”, not just for detecting the presence of tumors but also for proposing treatments. The aggressiveness of the cancer, its responsiveness to existing treatments and its risk of recurrence following local treatment: all this information is partly contained in the tumoral DNA. By deciphering it with the microdroplet technology, oncologists could benefit from a powerful diagnostic tool to help predict the evolution of the disease and determine a therapeutic strategy.

More information: Quantitative and sensitive detection of rare mutations using droplet-based microfluidics. Pekin, D., et al., Lab on a chip, published on-line on 19 May 2011, DOI:10.1039/C1LC20128J

Provided by CNRS (news : web)

A better way to see molecular structures

Enlarge

John Waugh in his laboratory in 1984. Credit: Calvin Campbell

In laboratories at MIT and around the world, scientists are deciphering the molecular structures of proteins involved in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, diabetes, and many other disorders. Much of that research would not be possible without the pioneering nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) work of John Waugh, MIT Institute Professor Emeritus.

When Waugh first came to MIT, in 1953, NMR was already a valuable tool for the study of molecular structure — but only for liquid samples. In the 1960s Waugh developed a way to use it to study solids, making it useful for analyzing things that don’t dissolve in water, including proteins, nucleic acids (such as DNA) and some drugs. That technique eventually played a role in many of the past half-century’s discoveries in chemistry, physics, biology and materials science; it is now one of science’s most widely used tools.

“He basically started this whole business,” says Robert Griffin, professor of chemistry, director of MIT’s Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory and a former postdoc of Waugh’s. “None of what goes on in a few hundred labs around the world would be going on without his seminal contribution.”

Earlier this month, for his work on NMR, Waugh was named the 2011 recipient of the Welch Award — given for contributions to basic research that benefits humankind — which carries a $300,000 prize.

‘One of those magic moments’

Waugh became interested in nuclear magnetic resonance at a graduate student at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). At that time, around 1949, NMR was still very new. “It was a physicists’ plaything,” recalls Waugh, who recently turned 82.

He joined the lab of Caltech chemistry professor Don Yost, whose specialty was “getting interested in some new phenomenon and then learning about it by conning a student into doing work on it. That’s what happened to me. I became the nuclear magnetic resonance student,” Waugh says. He read up on NMR in physics journals and built his own system with a borrowed magnet and “all sorts of World War II surplus electronics.”

After finishing his PhD, Waugh spent another year as a research associate at Caltech and then accepted a job as a chemistry instructor at MIT. He taught freshman chemistry, but had no space to do his own research.

“The way things are now, they hire a young person and expect him or her to do research, and they provide money and lab space. They didn’t do that in those days,” Waugh recalls. “I had no lab, and no money. When I asked about this I was told, ‘Well, you’ve got a fume hood in your office, you can do research there.’”

Luckily for Waugh, physicist Francis Bitter, for whom MIT’s magnet lab is now named, took an interest in his career. Bitter let him borrow a magnet, found him a small lab in the basement of Building 6 and got him a membership in the Research Laboratory of Electronics — the successor to the wartime Radiation Lab.

Once settled in his new lab, Waugh set out to overcome the limitation of NMR structural studies to the liquid state. “I remember trying to figure out how to do that for a long time. I drove myself nuts trying to think of how to do it,” Waugh says.

One day in the late 1960s, while eating breakfast, he suddenly realized that it could be done by applying a very special sequence of sharp, intense pulses of radiofrequency power. “It was one of those magic moments,” he recalls. Waugh then demonstrated and developed the technique along with his student Lee Huber and postdoc Ulrich Haeberlen. Fundamental contributions

Enthusiasm for the new technique, dubbed WAHUHA in honor of its discoverers, spread all the way to Washington University in St. Louis, where Griffin was then a grad student. “Everybody knew about John Waugh and all the exciting things that were happening at MIT. So I started trying to come here,” he says.

Griffin joined Waugh’s lab as a postdoc in 1970, and worked on ways to improve the sensitivity of NMR. He stayed on at MIT and in 1992 became director of the Francis Bitter Magnet Lab, where he now oversees 100 researchers in six labs. Much of the Magnet Lab’s research focuses on biological pursuits, such as determining the structure of proteins — for example, the amyloid proteins found in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients.

“NMR spectroscopy, thanks to Dr. Waugh’s insights, continues to profoundly influence the way we do science today,” says James Kinsey, chair of the scientific advisory board for the Welch Foundation, which will present Waugh with the Welch Award this fall. “His contributions have been absolutely fundamental to many past and current additions to our scientific understanding.”

As for Waugh, he says he never anticipated the wide impact his work has turned out to have.

“I think that’s the way most [scientists] are,” he says. “You start off doing some limited kind of stuff that makes use of any particular talents or knowledge you happen to have. You don’t think of it as being something that’s going to revolutionize the world. It’s just something interesting to do, and might be fun. That’s what motivates most of us, when you start off.”
This story is republished courtesy of MIT News (http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/), a popular site that covers news about MIT research, innovation and teaching.

Provided by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (news : web)

Related to the famous Maya blue: Indigo compounds give Mayan art their yellow color

For the Maya, blue was the color of the gods. For ritual purposes, art objects, and murals, they used Maya blue, a pigment without equal with regard to boldness, beauty, and durability. Maya blue is made of indigo embedded in a special clay mineral called palygorskite.

A team led by Antonio Doménech at the University of Valencia (Spain) has now discovered that some Mayan yellow pigments are based on similar components. As the scientists report in the journal Angewandte Chemie, the Maya appear to have developed a preparative technique that was not limited to Maya blue and anticipated modern syntheses of organic–inorganic hybrid materials.

Maya blue is so fascinating because it has a special brightness and a singular color that can range from a bright turquoise to a dark greenish blue. Does the color stem from a unique organic component, a unique linking of the molecules, or a unique production process? Doménech and his team tested these hypotheses. They surmise that the hue is determined by the ratio of indigo to dehydroindigo, the oxidized form. This ratio depends on how long the Maya heated their formulation. This would allow for the formation of different variations of the addition compound formed by the indigo compounds and the mineral. The researchers further conjecture that the Maya were also able to produce yellow and green pigments from indigo-based pigments.

By means of various spectroscopic and microscopic methods, as well as voltammetry -- a special electrochemical process that allows for the identification of pigments in micro- and nanoscale samples from works of art—the scientists examined a series of yellow samples from Mayan murals from different archaeological sites in the Yucatán (Mexico). The results confirm that a whole series of yellow pigments from Mayan mural paintings are made of indigoids bound to palygorskite. The researchers also found ochre.

Doménech and his co-workers think it very likely that the preparation of such “Maya yellow” pigments was an intermediate step in the preparation of indigo and Maya blue. Leaves and branches from indigo plants were probably soaked in a suspension of slaked lime in water and the coarse material filtered out. A portion of the yellow suspension could then be removed and added to palygorskite to make Maya yellow. The remaining suspension would then be stirred intensely and ventilated until it took on a blue color. It was then filtered and dried to obtain indigo for use as a dye. It could also be ground together with palygorskite and heated to produce Maya blue.

More information: Antonio Doménech, From Maya Blue to "Maya Yellow": A Connection between Ancient Nanostructured Materials from the Voltammetry of Microparticles, Angewandte Chemie International Edition, http://dx.doi.org/ … ie.201100921

Provided by Wiley (news : web)

Cheaper, greener, alternative energy storage at Stevens

Every year, the world consumes 15 Terrawatts of power. Since the amount of annual harvestable solar energy has been estimated at 50 Terrawatts, students at Stevens Institute of Technology are working on a supercapacitor that will allow us to harness more of this renewable energy through biochar electrodes for supercapacitors, resulting in a cleaner, greener planet.

Supercapacitors are common today in solar panels and hydrogen fuel cell car batteries, but the material they use to store energy, activated carbon, is unsustainable and expensive. Biochar, on the other hand, represents a cheap, green alternative. The Chemical Engineering Senior Design team of Rachel Kenion, Liana Vaccari, and Katie Van Strander has designed biochar electrodes for supercapacitors, and is looking to eventually bring their solution to market. The group is advised by Dr. Woo Lee, the George Meade Bond Professor of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science.

For their project, the team designed, fabricated, and tested a prototype supercapacitor electrode. The group demonstrated biochar's feasibility as an alternative to activated carbon for electrodes, which can be used in hybrid electric automobile batteries or home energy storage in solar panels.

"While the team's findings are preliminary, the approach taken by us represents a small, but potentially very important step in realizing sustainable energy future over the next few decades," says Dr. Lee.

Biochar is viewed as a green solution to the activated carbon currently used in supercapacitor electrodes. Unlike activated carbon, biochar is the byproduct of the pyrolysis process used to produce biofuels. That is, biochar comes from the burning of organic matter. As the use of biofuels increases, biochar production increases as well. "With our process, we are able to take that biochar and put it to good use in supercapacitors. Our supply comes from goldenrod crop, and through an IP-protected process, most organics, metals, and other impurities are removed. It is a more sustainable method of production than activated carbon," Liana says. Another significant advantage: biochar is nontoxic and will not pollute the soil when it is tossed out. The team estimates that biochar costs almost half as much as activated carbon, and is more sustainable because it reuses the waste from biofuel production, a process with sustainable intentions to begin with.

One of the largest concerns for solar panel production today is the sheer cost of manufacturing supercapacitors. Current photovoltaic arrays rely on supercapacitors to store the energy that is harnessed from the sun. And while the growth rate of supercapacitors is advancing at 20 percent a year, their cost is still very high, in part because they require activated carbon. Biochar, on the other hand, is cheaper and readily available as a byproduct of a process already used in energy production.

"My favorite part of this project was seeing the creation of the prototype," Katie says. "It was cool to be able to hold it in my hand and test it and say that I made this."

"Using this technology, we can reduce the cost of manufacturing supercapacitors by lowering the cost of the electrodes," Katie says. "Our goal is eventually to manufacture these electrodes and sell them to a company that already makes supercapacitors. Once supercapacitors become cheaper, they will become more common and be integrated into more and more devices."

Provided by Stevens Institute of Technology

Mechanism behind compound's effects on skin inflammation and cancer progression

Charles J. Dimitroff, MS, PhD and colleagues in the Dimitroff Lab at Brigham and Women's Hospital, have developed a fluorinated analog of glucosamine, which, in a recent study, has been shown to block the synthesis of key carbohydrate structures linked to skin inflammation and cancer progression. These findings appear in the April 14, 2011, issue of the Journal of Biological Chemistry.

Dr. Dimitroff and colleagues show for the first time that the fluorinated glucosamine therapeutic works not through direct incorporation into growing sugar chains as previously believed but instead blocks the synthesis of a key sugar, UDP-GlcNAc, inside immune cells characteristically involved inflammation and anti-tumor immunity

Accordingly, this report underscores a novel and previously unknown mechanism by which fluorinated glucosamine analogs could shape and reduce inflammation intensity, while boosting anti-tumor immune responses. Such knowledge could prove valuable in the design of new and more potent glucosamine mimetics against disease as well as in treatment strategies to utilize existing glucosamine mimetics more efficiently.

Provided by Brigham and Women's Hospital

Supercapacitors: Cheaper, greener, alternative energy storage

 Every year, the world consumes approximately 15 terawatts of power, according to some estimates. Since the amount of annual harvestable solar energy has been estimated at 50 terawatts, students at Stevens Institute of Technology are working on a supercapacitor that will allow us to harness more of this renewable energy through biochar electrodes for supercapacitors, resulting in a cleaner, greener planet.

Supercapacitors are common today in solar panels and hydrogen fuel cell car batteries, but the material they use to store energy, activated carbon, is unsustainable and expensive. Biochar, on the other hand, represents a cheap, green alternative. The Chemical Engineering Senior Design team of Rachel Kenion, Liana Vaccari, and Katie Van Strander has designed biochar electrodes for supercapacitors, and is looking to eventually bring their solution to market. The group is advised by Dr. Woo Lee, the George Meade Bond Professor of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science.

For their project, the team designed, fabricated, and tested a prototype supercapacitor electrode. The group demonstrated biochar's feasibility as an alternative to activated carbon for electrodes, which can be used in hybrid electric automobile batteries or home energy storage in solar panels.

"While the team's findings are preliminary, the approach taken by us represents a small, but potentially very important step in realizing sustainable energy future over the next few decades," says Dr. Lee.

Biochar is viewed as a green solution to the activated carbon currently used in supercapacitor electrodes. Unlike activated carbon, biochar is the byproduct of the pyrolysis process used to produce biofuels. That is, biochar comes from the burning of organic matter. As the use of biofuels increases, biochar production increases as well. "With our process, we are able to take that biochar and put it to good use in supercapacitors. Our supply comes from goldenrod crop, and through an IP-protected process, most organics, metals, and other impurities are removed. It is a more sustainable method of production than activated carbon," Liana says. Another significant advantage: biochar is nontoxic and will not pollute the soil when it is tossed out. The team estimates that biochar costs almost half as much as activated carbon, and is more sustainable because it reuses the waste from biofuel production, a process with sustainable intentions to begin with.

One of the largest concerns for solar panel production today is the sheer cost of manufacturing supercapacitors. Current photovoltaic arrays rely on supercapacitors to store the energy that is harnessed from the sun. And while the growth rate of supercapacitors is advancing at 20 percent a year, their cost is still very high, in part because they require activated carbon. Biochar, on the other hand, is cheaper and readily available as a byproduct of a process already used in energy production.

"My favorite part of this project was seeing the creation of the prototype," Katie says. "It was cool to be able to hold it in my hand and test it and say that I made this."

"Using this technology, we can reduce the cost of manufacturing supercapacitors by lowering the cost of the electrodes," Katie says. "Our goal is eventually to manufacture these electrodes and sell them to a company that already makes supercapacitors. Once supercapacitors become cheaper, they will become more common and be integrated into more and more devices."

Story Source:

The above story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations ) from materials provided by Stevens Institute of Technology.

Portable hydrogen reactor for fuel cells

ScienceDaily (May 23, 2011) — Chemical engineering students at Stevens Institute of Technology are transforming the way that American soldiers power their battery-operated devices by making a small change: a really small change. Capitalizing on the unique properties of microscale systems, the students have invented a microreactor that converts everyday fossil fuels like propane and butane into pure hydrogen for fuel cell batteries. These batteries are not only highly efficient, but also can be replenished with hydrogen again and again for years of resilient performance in the field.

With soldiers carrying up to 80% of gear weight in batteries, the Army has a high interest in replacing the current paradigm of single-use batteries with a reliable, reusable power source. The Stevens-made microreactors thus have the potential to not only reduce waste from disposable batteries, but also provide American soldiers with a dependable way to recharge the batteries for the critical devices that keep them safe.

Current methods for generating fuel cell hydrogen are both sophisticated and risky, requiring high temperatures and a vacuum to produce the necessary chemical-reaction-causing plasmas. Once in a container, hydrogen is a highly volatile substance that is dangerous and expensive to transport.

The Stevens microreactor overcomes both of these barriers by using low temperatures and atmospheric pressure, and by producing hydrogen only as needed to avoid creating explosive targets in combat areas. These advanced reactors are created using cutting-edge microfabrication techniques, similar to those used to create plasma television screens, which use microscale physics to produce plasma under normal atmospheres.

The team has already had success producing hydrogen from methanol. After gasifying methanol by suspending it in hot nitrogen gas, the mixture is drawn into a 25µm channel in the microreactor. There, it reacts with plasma to cause thermal decomposition, breaking down the methanol into its elemental components. Now the team is conducting tests to see what kind of yields are realizable from various starter fuels. Eventually, soldiers will be able to convert everyday liquid fuels like propane or butane, commonly found on military bases, into high-potency juice for portable fuel cell batteries.

The team, made up of seniors Ali Acosta, Kyle Lazzaro, Randy Parrilla, and Andrew Robertson, are supporting Ph.D. candidate Peter Lindner in a research project sponsored by the U.S. Army. The project is overseen by Dr. Ronald Besser. The team will be presenting their device prototype at Senior Projects Expo on April 27.

Story Source:

The above story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations by ScienceDaily staff) from materials provided by Stevens Institute of Technology.

Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

Disclaimer: Views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect those of ScienceDaily or its staff.

DSM to globally increase prices for all liquid polyester resins, beads and urethanes

Effective June 1st or as contracts allow, DSM Coating Resins will increase prices in all regions for all its liquid Polyester Resins, Solid Thermoplastic Acrylic Beads and Urethanes both solvent and waterborne with significant amounts, depending on the dynamics of the specific raw materials.

The price increase affects the entire Coatings, Adhesives and Graphic Arts portfolio, including NeoCryl™ acrylic beads, NeoRez™ waterborne urethanes, NeoRez™, Uraflex™ and Solucote™ solvent borne urethanes, Uradil™ waterborne polyesters and Uralac™ solvent borne polyesters.

The increases are necessitated by the fact that prices for critical raw materials continue to rise significantly. This is in large part down to supply-demand imbalances caused by structural capacity constraints, soaring demand in certain value chains and outages driven by force majeures, such as the recent tsunami in Japan.

“Current raw material price rises continue to outpace our own mitigation efforts, meaning that margins at these products are now at unsustainable levels. By acting now to address this, we hope to ensure that we can continue focusing on our customers by delivering innovations and supply capabilities for the technologies of the future,” said Patrick Niels, Director, DSM Coating Resins.

 

Bibby Scientific Ltd Acquires Electrothermal Engineering Ltd

 As of May 17th 2011, Bibby Scientific Ltd. announced its acquisition of Electrothermal Engineering Ltd. from Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.

Electrothermal, an Essex based company founded in 1941, is a specialist in precisely controlled heating and cooling applications. Using this expertise the company has developed an extensive range of products including heaters and controllers for the research and teaching laboratory, reaction stations which are commonly used by the pharmaceutical industry for optimising reaction conditions and Vehicle Mounted Vessels which have widespread use in military vehicles for the heating of water and the provision of hot food and drinks for troops.

James Heffernan, CEO of Bibby, released the following statement: “The purchase of Electrothermal's specialist operations will enhance Bibby’s position as an industry leader in the manufacture of laboratory products, in particular, due to Electrothermal's proven track record and expertise in heating and cooling applications, the global attractiveness of their products and their outstanding quality and service. When coupled with Bibby’s sales channels and extensive complementary product range marketed under the brands Stuart, Techne and Jenway, we believe the new group creates a compelling offering for customers, both current and new. We plan to continue to support Electrothermal's reputation as a premium brand offering customers innovative, premium products in each of the markets it serves”.

 

Search for Advanced Materials Aided by Discovery of Hidden Symmetries in Nature

A new way of understanding the structure of proteins, polymers, minerals, and engineered materials was published in Nature Materials. The discovery by two Penn State University researchers is a new type of symmetry in the structure of materials, which the researchers say greatly expands the possibilities for discovering or designing materials with desired properties. The research is expected to have broad relevance in many development efforts involving physical, chemical, biological, or engineering disciplines including, for example, the search for advanced ferroelectric ferromagnet materials for next-generation ultrasound devices and computers.

Before the publication of this paper, scientists and engineers had five different types of symmetries to use as tools for understanding the structures of materials whose building blocks are arranged in fairly regular patterns. Four types of symmetries had been known for thousands of years - called rotation, inversion, rotation inversion, and translation - and a fifth type - called time reversal - have been discovered about 60 years ago. Now, Gopalan and Litvin have added a new, sixth, type, called rotation reversal. As a result, the number of known ways in which the components of such crystalline materials can be combined in symmetrical ways has multiplied from no more than 1,651 before to more than 17,800 now. "We mathematically combined the new rotation-reversal symmetry with the previous five symmetries and now we know that symmetrical groups can form in crystalline materials in a much larger number of ways," said Daniel B. Litvin, distinguished professor of physics, who coauthored the study with Venkatraman Gopalan, professor of materials science and engineering.

The new rotation-reversal symmetry enriches the mathematical language that researchers use to describe a crystalline material's structure and to predict its properties. "Rotation reversal is an absolutely new approach that is different in that it acts on a static component of the material's structure, not on the whole structure all at once," Litvin said. "It is important to look at symmetries in materials because symmetry dictates all natural laws in our physical universe."

The most simple type of symmetry - rotation symmetry - is obvious, for example, when a square shape is rotated around its center point: the square shows its symmetrical character by looking exactly the same at four points during the rotation: at 90 degrees, 180 degrees, 270 degrees, and 360 degrees. Gopalan and Litvin say their new rotation-reversal symmetry is obvious, as well, if you know where to look.

The "eureka moment" of the discovery occurred when Gopalan recognized that the simple concept of reversing the direction of a spiral-shaped structure from clockwise to counterclockwise opens the door to a distinctly new type of symmetry. Just as a square shape has the quality of rotation symmetry even when it is not being rotated, Gopalan realized that a spiral shape has the quality of rotation-reversal symmetry even when it is not being physically forced to rotate in the reverse direction. Their further work with this rotation-reversal concept revealed many more structural symmetries than previously had been recognized in materials containing various types of directionally oriented structures. Many important biological molecules, for example, are said to be either "right handed" or "left handed," including DNA, sugars, and proteins.

"We found that rotation-reversal symmetry also exists in paired structures where the partner components lean toward each other, then away from each other in paired patterns symmetrically throughout a material," Gopalan said. These "tilting octahedral" structures are common in a wide variety of crystalline materials, where all the component structures are tightly interconnected by networks of shared atoms. The researchers say it is possible that components of materials with rotation-reversal symmetry could be engineered to function as on/off switches for a variety of novel applications.

The now-much-larger number of possible symmetry groups also is expected to be useful in identifying materials with unusual combinations of properties. "For example, the goal in developing a ferroelectric ferromagnet is to have a material in which the electrical dipoles and the magnetic moments coexist and are coupled in the same material - that is, a material that allows electrical control of magnetism - which would be very useful to have in computers," Gopalan said. The addition of rotation-reversal symmetry to the materials-science toolbox may help researchers to identify and search for structures in materials that could have strong ferroelectric and ferromagnetic properties.

Gopalan and Litvin said a goal of their continuing research is to describe each of the more than 17,800 different combinations of the six symmetry types to give materials scientists a practical new tool for significantly increasing the efficiency and effectiveness in finding novel materials. The team also plans to conduct laboratory experiments that make use of their theoretical work on rotation-reversal symmetry. "We have done some predictions, we will test those predictions experimentally," Litvin said. "We are in the very early stages of implementing the results we have described in our new theory paper." Gopalan said, for example, that he has predicted new forms for optical properties in the commonplace quartz crystals that are used widely in watches and electronic equipment, and that his group now is testing these predictions experimentally.

 

ALTANA acquires printing ink manufacturer Color Chemie

05-20-2011: The specialty chemicals Group ALTANA has signed an agreement to acquire the Color Chemie Group. The chemical company, which is headquartered in Büdingen, Hesse, Germany, mainly produces environmentally friendly, water-based specialty printing inks and offers related services to its customers. Color Chemie’s printing inks are primarily used for packaging boxes, but also on foils, carrier bags, gift wrapping papers and wallpapers. In 2010, the Color Chemie Group achieved sales of €46 million with about 150 employees. In addition to Büdingen, the company has production sites in Bonn, Germany, as well as in Austria, France and Poland. Color Chemie will be integrated into the ALTANA division ACTEGA Coatings & Sealants. The transaction is subject to approval by Germany’s Federal Cartel Office.

“Like ALTANA, Color Chemie focuses on products and services in technologically demanding niche markets and therefore fits excellently into our portfolio,“ stated Dr. Matthias L. Wolfgruber, CEO of ALTANA. Wolfgruber regards the acquisition as a large and important element in the context of ALTANA’s acquisition policy. “We want to continue our profitable growth. Besides our operating business, targeted acquisitions will make a decisive contribution to this growth course,“ continued Wolfgruber.

“The acquisition of Color Chemie will further strengthen our market position in the area of specialty printing inks for the packaging industry,“ underlined Dr. Guido Forstbach, President Division ACTEGA. He pointed out that against the background of ever increasing environmental protection requirements the waterbased products have a high market potential. “Color Chemie’s range of products therefore optimally complements our existing activities in the area of packaging printing. At the same time, due to the division’s global presence, ACTEGA opens up further growth opportunities for the products of Color Chemie.“

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LANXESS to relocate to Cologne

 Specialty chemicals group LANXESS has found a new home in Cologne. The company will transfer its corporate headquarters from Leverkusen to the former Lufthansa headquarters on Deutzer Freiheit in the second half of 2013. This means that LANXESS will in the future steer its global business from Cologne. The contracts with the owner, Kennedy-Ufer-Köln GmbH & Co. KG, and the project developer, HOCHTIEF Projektentwicklung GmbH, have already been signed. LANXESS will rent the building measuring around 100 meters in height.

"We have found an ideal location for LANXESS in Cologne, and are really looking forward to moving to our new home city," said Axel C. Heitmann, Chairman of the Board of Management of LANXESS AG, at this year’s Annual Stockholders’ Meeting. Cologne, continued Heitmann, not only has an infrastructure unique in North Rhine-Westphalia with excellent transport connections, it is also a renowned academic and research center and, as such, an enormous attraction for top talent. “The high cost-efficiency of the new company headquarters and the benefits of Cologne as a location will assist us in our course of growth.”

More than 1,000 employees will move to their new offices in the Deutz area of Cologne in 2013. “The building is currently being completely modernized. It will then become one of the most energy-efficient buildings in Germany,” stated Heitmann. The new company headquarters will bring almost all management functions under one roof. The 22-storey office building has a leased area of around 38,000 square meters.

 

Special Eurobarometer report published on the consumer perception of chemicals

05-20-2011: Eurobarometer findings show that most people in the EU are unable to identify everyday household chemicals as potentially hazardous and rarely follow safety instructions. The understanding of chemical products and public awareness of how to use these safely varies considerably from one country to another.

EU citizens are generally more inclined to characterise chemical products as 'dangerous' or 'harmful to the environment' rather than 'useful' or 'innovative'. While the majority say that they have used chemical products at work, a large number of people are unable to identify everyday household chemicals as "chemical products". Many read safety instructions before using household chemicals but the attention paid to such instructions is higher only for certain types of products like pesticides and detergents. The level of understanding about chemical products differs considerably from country to country.

These findings were published today in a 'Special Eurobarometer' survey report which has assessed consumers' perception of chemical products, and judged how those perceptions differ when people are in regular contact with them. The survey also looked at people's attitudes in dealing with safety instructions and illustrated their understanding of the hazard symbols and safety language (as provided by the Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures (CLP Regulation) which entered into force on 20 January 2009).

This survey has been conducted for the first time in Europe and is part of a project conceived by ECHA to implement the requirement in the CLP Regulation on carrying out the communication study (Article 34). ECHA has joined forces with DG Joint Research Centre - Institute for Health and Consumer Protection (JRC) to prepare this special Eurobarometer Survey undertaken by TNS Opinion & Social Network for DG Communication of the European Commission.

The second and final part of the project is a piece of qualitative research to examine consumers' opinions and behaviours related to chemicals outlined in the Eurobarometer Survey results in more detail.

ECHA will submit the final report of the study to the European Commission by January 2012 and will provide recommendations on how to further improve hazard communication on chemicals aimed at the general public.

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New technique sheds light on the mysterious process of cell division

Using a new technique in which models of primitive cells are constructed from the bottom up, scientists have demonstrated that the structure of a cell's membrane and cytoplasm may be as important to cell division as the specialized machinery -- such as enzymes, DNA or RNA -- which are found within living cells. Christine Keating, an associate professor of chemistry at Penn State University, and Meghan Andes-Koback, a graduate student in the Penn State Department of Chemistry, generated simple, non-living model "cells" with which they established that asymmetric division -- the process by which a cell splits to become two distinct daughter cells -- is possible even in the absence of complex cellular components, such as genes. The study, which will be published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, may provide important clues to how life originated from non-life and how modern cells came to exhibit complex behaviors.

Keating explained that how biological cells split into asymmetrical daughter cells with very different compositions and different "fates" is something of a mystery. Cellular differentiation -- the process by which an unspecialized cell, such as a stem cell, becomes a specialized cell -- requires that different biological components reorganize themselves into each of the resulting daughter cells. For this apparently complex task to be accomplished, some important mechanism must guide both the reorganization of cellular parts and the maintenance of polarity -- the property of a cell to exhibit distinct front and back "sides" with specific placement and distribution of cellular machinery. "Many genes have been implicated in the maintenance of cell polarity and the facilitation of division into nonidentical daughter cells. It's thanks to changes in the expression of these genes that a skin cell becomes a skin cell and a heart cell becomes a heart cell," Keating said. "But our research took a different approach. We asked: In addition to the genetic factors that guide asymmetrical cell division and polarity maintenance, what structural, biophysical factors might be at work, and how might these factors have predated the evolution of the complex genetic systems known to exist in modern cells?"

The team began with the hypothesis that because new daughter cells arise by division of existing mother cells, certain inherited material -- such as the cell membrane -- could serve as a sort of informational "landmark." This landmark could set in motion and guide a cascade of chemical events related to ordered cell division and polarity maintenance. To test this hypothesis, Keating and Andes-Koback built model cells from the bottom up, allowing water, lipids, and polymers to assemble into mimics of the most basic constituents of real, living cells -- such as a membrane and cytoplasm. They then altered the osmotic pressure outside of the "cells" by adding sugar, which forced them to divide in a way that is reminiscent of how living, biological cells split under natural conditions.

A new technique that constructs models of primitive cells has demonstrated that the structure of a cell's membrane and cytoplasm may be as important to cell division as a cell's enzymes, DNA, or RNA. The study, which will be published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, may provide important clues to how life originated from non-life and how modern cells came to exhibit complex behaviors. This image shows the second-generation division in the model-cell. The initial division was followed by budding of one of the daughter cells. The small bud contains a newly-formed dextran-rich aqueous phase coated by the red membrane domain, while the larger body of the model cell contains the PEG-rich aqueous phase coated by the green membrane domain. Credit: Christine Keating lab, Penn State University

"We observed that even model cells can divide in a structured way, which implies a kind of intrinsic order," Andes-Koback said. She explained that, like a biological cell, the model mother cell was designed to exhibit asymmetry in both its membrane and its cellular interior. The membrane asymmetry was modeled using two distinct lipid domains, while the cellular interior was modeled using two distinct polymers called polyethylene glycol (PEG) and dextran. These polymers form distinct domains, or compartments, on the inside of the model cells, with the dextran-rich compartment containing a higher concentration of a particular protein. The team observed that when the asymmetric mother cell divided, one daughter inherited one lipid domain surrounding the PEG-rich interior, and the other daughter inherited the other membrane domain surrounding the dextran-rich interior, which contained the larger portion of the protein. "Most importantly, we also found that when we varied the relative size of the two lipid domains, one daughter cell got both types of membrane and the other daughter got only one type," Andes-Koback said. "This was possible since the interior aqueous phases controlled the fission plane, and it is important because it provides a way to achieve a patch of distinct membrane to serve as a landmark for polarity in subsequent 'generations.'"

The team members note that the new modeling technique seems to suggests that simple chemical and physical interactions within cells -- such as self-assembly, phase separation, and partitioning -- can result in seemingly complex behaviors – like asymmetric division -- even when no additional cellular machinery is present. "Since there were no nucleic acids nor enzymes present, we clearly didn't have genes governing how our model cells would behave," Keating said. "So our study supports the hypothesis that structural and organizational 'cues' work in concert with genetic signals to achieve and maintain polarity through successive cell-division cycles."

Keating added that a working model of cellular dynamics requires a good understanding, not just of the role of genes, but also of the role of the structural organization of cells. "Once we have a firm grasp of what guides a cell's behavior, we might one day be able to design better disease treatments based on targeting errors in intracellular organization," she said.

Keating also explained that experimentation on non-living model cells that contain no DNA could help point to clues explaining the mysterious process of abiogenesis -- the formation of life from non-living matter, an event that happened at least once during our Earth's history. "Scientists have simulated early-Earth conditions in laboratories and have demonstrated that many amino acids -- the biochemical constituents of proteins -- can form through natural chemical reactions," Keating said. "We hope our research helps to fill in another part of the puzzle: how chemical and spatial organization may have contributed to the success of early life forms."

Provided by Pennsylvania State University (news : web)