Exploring the inner workings of materials

Van Vliet, awarded tenure this year as the Paul M. Cook Career Development Associate Professor of Materials Science and Engineering and Biological Engineering, says working on a farm during her summers in New Jersey is what initially sparked her interest. “Farmers are really creative engineers,” she explains: They rely on extremely complex machines, such as potato harvesters, and spend the off-season repairing them. In addition, she says, they are constantly dealing with experimental questions in biology — “questions like, how much nitrogen should there be in the soil for the pepper fruit to grow faster than the leaves?”

Even though her farm jobs often involved the lowliest of tasks — “one of my jobs at the Rutgers Agricultural Research and Extension Center was separating the rotten potatoes and the mud clumps from the good potatoes,” she recalls — “the people I worked with were very smart engineers. I learned about how things work, how complicated machines are made and repaired, and how people systematically ask and answer questions.”

Besides her farm experiences, Van Vliet says another turning point in her growing interest in technology was a stint at Space Camp, an educational program in Huntsville, Ala., when she was 13. That’s where, she says, “I got hooked on … really high-tech stuff.”

Those ways of thinking have carried into her academic research, which spans topics from the microscopic structure of concrete to detecting how cancer cells attract new blood vessels to foster their growth. A common thread throughout: the combining of computer models and lab experiments to understand how chemistry and mechanics are closely intertwined in materials that are important to human existence.

“I always enjoyed being challenged,” she says. “Like many here, I wanted to do something hard. Engineering seemed like it wouldn’t be easy.” Engineering related to biology and medicine in particular, she reasoned, “was something that sounded like you’d make a direct impact on people’s lives.”

Teaching was also a draw from an early age. Even as a child, Van Vliet recalls, “I always loved the idea of teaching.” In fact, she says, “I would give classes in my backyard — to nobody.” Mostly, these were “very rigorous cooking classes. I always wanted to have my own cooking show, explaining exactly why onion grass made such a great soup.”

During her senior year of high school, Van Vliet was in a serious car accident, experiencing what is now termed traumatic brain injury. With much support, she was able to apply to colleges from her rehabilitation facility, and graduate from high school with her class that spring.

While both her parents are college graduates — her father worked at DuPont, and her mother taught Spanish — the idea of going away to college for engineering was “a new idea to all of us,” she says. Van Vliet chose Brown University because it offered degrees in both biomedical engineering and bioethics, enjoying her undergraduate experience so much that she thought she wanted to stay at Brown for graduate school as well. She loved “the pace of the lab work — every day, solving a problem or making progress.” But her professors encouraged her to expand her horizons.

Van Vliet applied, somewhat tentatively, to MIT’s doctoral program in materials science and engineering. “I wasn’t even going to visit,” she recalls. “I wanted to be surrounded by people who like to play sports, to do African dance, debate philosophy,” she says, and she figured MIT “would be all geeks and nerds.”

But she received a phone call from Kirk Kolenbrander, who was then on MIT’s materials science and engineering faculty (and is now vice president and secretary of the Corporation), urging her to make a visit and even explaining which bus and subway stations to use.

So Van Vliet did end up venturing north to Cambridge, and has vivid memories of that weekend — where, among other things, she met her future husband. She recalls “how much I was impressed by the enthusiasm, the breadth of intelligence” that she found, and how the students seemed “fun and well-rounded.”

And, she adds: “I now love the geeky facets of MIT life, and I actively contribute to that!”

Van Vliet enrolled at the Institute, earning her PhD in just four years with a 2002 thesis on predicting defect nucleation in metals. Upon completing her degree, she accepted MIT’s offer of a faculty position in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering. But first she spent two years as a postdoc at Children’s Hospital Boston, researching how mechanical strain regulates chemical activity of enzymes related to the growth of blood vessels, before returning to MIT as an assistant professor in 2004.

She continues to conduct research on material chemomechanics, which she describes as “the coupling between chemistry and mechanics.” Her group has described how tissue cells respond to changes in their mechanical and chemical environments — including changes that may lead to the onset of cancer — by studying nonbiological materials that share this chemical-mechanical coupling: polymers that can mimic some properties of tissues, nanocomposite coatings that can improve the toughness of car bodies, and even cement-based materials in which water confined in small pores can control mechanical properties.

Because her work is so inherently multidisciplinary, she says, “I get to populate our group with students and postdocs from all kinds of disciplines — materials science and engineering, biological engineering, mechanical engineering, solid-state physics, chemistry. It’s a very diverse group of talent. That’s part of our strength, and part of MIT’s strength.”
This story is republished courtesy of MIT News (http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/), a popular site that covers news about MIT research, innovation and teaching.

Provided by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (news : web)

New imaging techniques reveal the workings of supramolecular nanomachines

Supramolecules comprising many kinds of proteins and nucleic acids are present in all living organisms. Often with precise structures and a variety of parts, these supramolecules exhibit complex movements and exhaustive functions, essentially behaving like nanomachines. “How do these tiny supramolecular nanomachines work in the bodies of living organisms? I want to know the mechanism behind their actions,” says Koji Yonekura, associate chief scientist of the Biostructural Mechanism Laboratory in the Photon Science Research Division of the RIKEN SPring-8 Center. Because function is closely related to form, the action mechanism cannot be understood without clarifying the conformations of the components of supramolecules. Yonekura is working to develop new techniques such as cryo-electron microscopy to elucidate the action mechanism behind these supramolecular nanomachines.
The wonder of the flagellum

Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica exhibit active movements, including moving towards places where nutrients are available and moving away from places of low temperature. The flagellum, an appendage that protrudes from bacterial surfaces, produces the driving force for these movements. The bacterial flagellum has a supramolecular structure of about 30 different proteins, comprising a basal body that works as a rotary motor, a flagellar filament that revolves like a propeller, and a hook that joins the two.

“As the ions flow into the flagellar cell, the rotor in the basal body revolves at up to 300 revolutions per second, so that the flagellar filament revolves like a propeller and causes the bacterium to move forward. The flagellum is like a well-designed nanomachine. I want to know how complex biological nanomachines like these work in living organisms,” says Yonekura. After learning the structural analysis of biomolecules by electron microscopy from Chikashi Toyoshima at the Tokyo Institute of Technology (currently at the Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, The University of Tokyo) in 1997, Yonekura joined the Namba Protonic Nanomachine Project (directed by Keiichi Namba, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University) in an Exploratory Research for Advanced Technology (ERATO) program sponsored by the Japan Science and Technology Agency. Since then, he has been engaged in elucidating the mechanism behind the actions of the flagellum.

The flagellar filament is more than 10 µm in length, much longer than the main cell body of the bacterium, which measures just 1–2 µm. Each flagellar filament consists of a tubular bundle of 11 thin, long filaments known as protofilaments. “If the flagellar filament were linear, no propelling force would be generated even when it revolves at an extremely high speed. The reason why the bacterium can move its body forward is because the flagellar filament has a superhelical structure with a slight curvature. However, the very fact that the flagellar filament assumes this form is wonderful.”

The flagellar filament is made up of a stack of flagellin, a protein produced in the cell body. When a form of protein of the same size and shape is stacked, only a linear structure is produced. Flagellin, however, occurs in structurally distinct left- and right-handed (L- and R-) types. As the L- and R-type protofilaments coexist in combination at different ratios, the flagellar filament can be transformed between the L and R structures . However, this is not the total mechanism behind bacterial movement by flagellar revolution. The bacterium repeats a motor pattern in which it goes forward for 2–3s, then tumbles and changes direction to propel itself forward again. What mechanism does the bacterium use to change its swimming direction?

It is known that when the bacterium changes direction, the counterclockwise rotor revolves in the reverse direction for 1 ms. With this motor reversal, a torsional force is exerted on the flagellar filament, causing some of the L-protofilaments to turn right-handed, and at this time the bacterium changes direction with the imbalance. This is the conjectured mechanism behind the directional switching in the bacterium. “The mechanical details of the directional change cannot be understood without clarifying the conformation of flagellin,” says Yonekura. However, this is a difficult task.
Cryo-electron microscopy and a new technique for helical reconstitution

A representative method for examining protein conformations is X-ray crystallography, in which a prepared protein crystal is exposed to an X-ray beam. Colliding with the crystal, X-rays are scattered by the electrons around the atomic nuclei, interfering with each other to produce a diffraction image. The distribution of electrons in the sample material is determined from the position and intensity of the diffraction to show how the atoms are arranged. A crystal is used because the orderly atomic arrangement ensures clear, regular diffraction images, which allow the investigator to examine the conformation at high resolution.

“However, X-ray crystallography cannot be applied to the flagellar filament because it is quite difficult to create a crystal of fibrous protein. Hence, we decided to use an electron microscope. In electron microscopy, the sample is exposed to an electron beam. The use of an electron microscope offers the advantage that a real image of the sample can be seen. However, the energy of electron beams is so intense that the sample is destroyed if it is treated as it is.”

To solve this problem, Yonekura used cryo-electron microscopy. “The sample is frozen rapidly and enclosed in ice. By keeping the sample under cooling conditions at –269 °C, the damage it experiences due to electron irradiation during observation is reduced dramatically. Additionally, because the procedure takes place while the sample is in ice, another advantage is the ability to obtain observations in nearly the same state as in a living organism in aqueous solution.”

However, cryo-electron microscopy alone does not enable conformational data to be obtained at high resolution because a high-intensity electron beam must be applied to obtain the desired level of resolution. “Even though protein damage is reduced markedly, it is still severe, so the exposure to the electron beam must be minimized. The images taken under these conditions contain a great deal of noise, and almost nothing is visible. To extract useful information from the noisy image at high resolution, a special technique is required for image analysis.”

Because of this, Yonekura has developed a technique for image analysis to reconstitute conformations using helical symmetry. “To obtain information at high resolution from noisy images, a common approach is to take and average out a large number of images. However, since it was thought that an astronomical number of images would be required to obtain data at sufficient resolution, the conventional approach was impractical. Using the new technique of helical reconstitution we have developed, the conformation of a sample can be visualized at a workable resolution by totaling about 100 micrographs, provided that the sample has a helical structure like the flagellar filament. When we analyze a sample that has a helical structure, molecules aligned in various directions are visualized in one photograph. We utilize them efficiently.”
The mechanism of flagellar actions now revealed

In 2003, Yonekura succeeded in analyzing the conformation of R-flagellin as a component of the flagellar filament using a combination of cryo-electron microscopy and the new technique of helical reconstitution. The resolution they achieved was close to 4 A, or just 0.4 nm. Although that was a groundbreaking achievement that allowed the analyst to clarify the atomic arrangement in the amino acids that constitute flagellin, Yonekura and his colleagues continued to conduct their challenging work. “Analyzing the conformation of R-flagellin only allows us to know one state of the flagellar filament. The mechanism behind the morphological transition cannot be known without analyzing the conformation of the L-type.”

Then in 2008, Yonekura established his Biostructural Mechanism Laboratory at the RIKEN SPring-8 Center. At last, in March 2010, the laboratory succeeded in analyzing the conformation of the L-flagellin filament. The analysis took much time to develop because L-flagellin is unstable, but finally the molecular mechanism of the directional change in bacterial swimming was revealed. “By comparing the conformations of the L- and R-types, we find little change in the inner portion of the flagellar filament. On the other hand, the outer portion was found to change very flexibly. On motor reversal, part of the flagellin transits from the L-type to the R-type, switching the direction of the flagellar filament helix. As a result, the bacterium changes its swimming direction.”

The flagellar filament meets two contradictory requirements. One is the toughness needed to endure high-speed rotation, and the other is the flexibility required for the transition between the L- and R-types. “The conformation of flagellin really reconciles this toughness and flexibility. In fact, when we succeeded in analyzing the conformation, I was very impressed by the fact that the conformation is finely fabricated,” says Yonekura. “Actually, the conformation we determined proved to be rather different from the predicted structure. I realized again the importance of actually seeing what happens.

“In recent years, there has been a trend for research achievements to be influenced by the researchers’ ability to purchase expensive and sophisticated equipment. This is not very enjoyable. To make extensive efforts to allow myself to do what has not been done so far-that’s interesting. I would like to stick to this approach because a strong point of research is developing an ‘only-one’ technology.”
Three-dimensional crystallography of very fine crystals by electron microscopy

“I want to clarify the conformations of proteins at the highest possible resolution,” emphasizes Yonekura. He has devoted himself to developing a broad range of analytical techniques.

“A big feature of electron microscopy resides in dispensing with the need for sample crystallization. Despite this, crystals with a regular atomic arrangement are still attractive for those who want to examine the conformations of substances at high resolution. Even proteins that are usually unlikely to crystallize happen to form very fine crystals. We considered analyzing them by electron microscopy, but no suitable techniques were available. So we are developing a new technique in cooperation with Prof. Toyoshima at The University of Tokyo, Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation and Hitachi High-Tech Fielding Corporation.”

Electrons are 100,000 times more energetic than X-rays in terms of their potential for interactions with substances. This makes it possible to obtain information on atomic arrangement even in extremely small crystals. Recently, analytical techniques for very fine crystals using X-rays have been developed, and it is becoming possible to analyze crystals several micrometers long at SPring-8, the synchrotron radiation facility at the RIKEN Harima Institute. “Electron microscopy makes it possible to analyze even smaller crystals less than 1 µm in length. In membrane proteins and supramolecular complexes, which mediate a wide variety of biological activities and serve as drug discovery targets, only very fine crystals are formed in some cases, so this technique will be an important analytical tool.”

Crystallography using electron microscopy offers another major advantage. “While X-rays are scattered by electrons, electrons are influenced by electrical charge. As such, electron beams allow us to know not only how atoms are arranged in crystals, but also which portions of a protein are positively charged and which portions are negatively charged. When a protein is in action, the distribution of charge is very important.”

Yonekura targets the flagellar ion channel in his crystallographic work using electron microscopy. The ion channel is present in the basal body, through which ions enter the cell from outside. The ionic flow drives the rotor in the basal body to allow the flagellar filament to rotate. “Because ions are charged particles, it is possible to track their pathways. So far, no one in the world has been successful in three-dimensional crystallography of very fine crystals using electron microscopy. I hope that we will achieve this in a few years time.”

Another target of his is the telomere, a structure at the end of the chromosome. The telomere is said to shorten upon each cell division and control cell longevity. Conversely, the telomere elongates in cancer cells. “The telomere is a large, complex supramolecule comprising DNA and proteins. I want to unveil the mechanism that controls the length of the telomere by determining its conformation.”
Making the best use of all technical resources

In 2009, Yonekura and Saori Maki-Yonekura, a researcher in the Protein Crystallography Research Group at the RIKEN SPring-8 Center, were awarded the 2009 Ernst Ruska Award for their work entitled ‘Contribution toward elucidating the mechanisms of biological macromolecular machines by cryo-electron microscopy’. The award was established in 1980 by the German Society for Electron Microscopy in commemoration of Ernst Ruska, 1986 winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics and the inventor of electron microscopy. “I hear that the award is bestowed for achievements that involve a technical innovation, as well as a groundbreaking application of electron microscopy to visualize something previously invisible. This is what I have been aiming at, and I am very proud to have received the award.”

Yonekura is looking forward to utilizing the X-ray Free Electron Laser (XFEL) facility under construction at the RIKEN Harima Institute, which is scheduled to be completed in fiscal 2011. “The XFEL is expected to enable us to perform conformational analyses on whole cells and organelles as they are. We are now developing a new technique for analyzing biological samples by a combination of the XFEL and cryo-electron microscopy, jointly with Prof. Masayoshi Nakasako in the Department of Physics of the Faculty of Science and Technology at Keio University, as well as Director Masaki Yamamoto of the Research Infrastructure Group in the Advanced Photon Technology Division of the RIKEN SPring-8 Center and others. I am aiming at elucidating the mechanism behind the actions of nanomachines in living organisms. To this end, I am not fixed only on electron microscopy. Here at the RIKEN Harima Institute, a radiation facility with the world’s highest performance is in operation, and the associated equipment is available in a comprehensive link-up. I want to clarify the mechanism behind the actions of nanomachines by making the best use of the technical resources that have been compiled here over a long period. Many people are working to develop a broad range of equipment, and I believe that I can create a new technique by listening to their valuable advice and combining it with my own knowledge. I am now enjoying my research a lot.”

Provided by RIKEN (news : web)

Revealing the inner workings of cells with newly developed Raman microscopy technique

Living cells are virtuosos of chemistry. At any one time, countless chemical reactions are taking place within each cell. For researchers trying to understand how cells function, unraveling this complex chemistry is an ongoing challenge. The process, however, could soon become a little more straightforward. Mikiko Sodeoka and colleagues at the RIKEN Advanced Science Institute at Wako, in collaboration with a team led by Katsumasa Fujita and Satoshi Kawata at Osaka University, have demonstrated how to tag molecules in a way that promises to be much more versatile than current methods.

Traditionally, researchers looking to study the role of a particular small molecule within a cell have tagged it with a fluorescent marker. Using a fluorescence microscope, the tagged substance can be followed as it moves around the cell. However, fluorescent tags are bulky, and so can disrupt the molecule’s normal cellular interactions. To get around this problem, molecules can sometimes be tagged after reaching their destination within the cell, but this technique only works in a limited number of cases.

Sodeoka and her team have now shown that a simple chemical substituent called an alkyne, which consists of just two carbon atoms joined together by a triple bond, can replace the bulky fluorescent tag. Their imaging technique relies on the fact that alkynes scatter a particular wavelength of light when irradiated with a laser—a process known as Raman scattering—which can be detected using a Raman microscope. No other cellular components scatter light at this wavelength, giving a clear picture of the molecule within the cell.

To demonstrate the potential of their technique, the researchers used an alkyne-tagged component of DNA known as EdU. They then used a Raman microscope developed by Fujita and his team to follow a group of replicating cells as they incorporated EdU into their DNA (Fig. 1). The technique took some work to optimize, says Sodeoka. “We were very happy when we could finally see the time-series pictures of the incorporation of EdU into DNA.”

The EdU experiment is just a proof of principle, Sodeoka adds. “At this point, the sensitivity of the alkyne tag using Raman microscopy is lower than fluorescent imaging,” she says. To improve the sensitivity, the team is working to optimize the attachment of the alkyne tag, and also to improve the Raman microscope itself. “If the sensitivity problem is solved, Raman imaging using alkynes as a small tag could become a powerful tool,” she concludes.

More information: Yamakoshi, H., et al. Imaging of EdU, an alkyne-tagged cell proliferation probe, by Raman microscopy. Journal of the American Chemical Society 133, 6102–6105 (2011).

Provided by RIKEN (news : web)